Allocation of psychology as an independent science. Lectures for students. The doctrine of direct experience c. Wundt

Psychology and esotericism

Separation of psychology into an independent science Socio-economic prerequisites for the separation of psychology into an independent science: the development of industry and the complication of socio-economic relations, the influence of pedagogical and clinical practice. Oleinik The second half of the 19th century plays a special role in the history of not only psychology, but also of all European science. Darwin and its influence on the development of psychology. Significance of Darwin's ideas for psychology: 1.

8. Separation of psychology into an independent science

Socio-economic prerequisites for the separation of psychology into an independent science: the development of industry and the complication of socio-economic relations, the influence of pedagogical and clinical practice.

(Oleynik)

The second half of the 19th century plays a special role in the history not only of psychology, but of all European science.

1. growing interest in natural science problems.

2. the development of technology and production showed the need for all knowledge regarding material world, the growth of industrial production,

3. increase in public demand for scientific knowledge, the integration of the efforts of scientists of different specialties in a comprehensive solution of specific problems contributed to the widespread development of the natural sciences.

4. development of chemistry, biology, physics contributed to the progress of medicine, psychiatry

Political changes: By the middle of the XIX century. France has lost its leading position in Europe. Germany becomes the main industrial, economic and military force in Europe. A natural consequence of the strengthening of Germany was that German science and education also developed at a rapid pace and, in turn, exerted an ever greater influence on the development of European science.

Natural science concepts and methods, progress in related fields have led to the fact thatpsychology began to stand out as an independent science in line with natural science, h which allowed us to solve the following problem:

Studying the mental manifestations of a person based on experimental methodology in planning and conducting research;

Use in psychological research of instrumental (hardware) techniques and experimental procedures, allowing quantitative measure mental phenomena;

Applications of mathematical methodswhen processing the obtained empirical data;

Using the achievements of related scientific disciplines (primarily physiology) in interpreting the results obtained.

Key points evolutionary theory Ch. Darwin and its influence on the development of psychology.

Evolution factors:Variation, heredity and natural selection -> reasons for the diversity of plant and animal species, their unity and genetic connection. His teaching was rejected the theory of the constancy of species and the point of view of the divine origin of animals and man.

Significance of Darwin's ideas for psychology:

1. genetic principleallows you to explain the development of the psyche from lower forms to higher

2. psyche began to act as a necessary side of life, providing adaptation to external conditions -\u003eFunction of the psycheadaptation to the environment,The ability to observe external behavioral signs

3. continuity of the mental organization of animals-> connection between the psyche of animals and humans

In "Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals","The Origin of Man and Sexual Selection"showed the presence of common genetic roots in the mental abilities of humans and animals (grin, clenched fists - rudiments). Darwin believed that feelings and impressions, various emotions and abilities: love, attention, imitation in its infancy, and sometimes in a developed formcan be found in animals.

4. The birth of comparative psychology -Disclosure of the characteristics of the psyche of animals and humans

5. Development of problems of anthropogenesis - The primary role in the formation of man belongs to language, thinking, tools -> anthropomorphism(Darwin did not single out qualitative differences between the psyche of animals and humans, but this served as the basis for the fight against theology)

6. The birth of child psychology -"Biographical Sketch of an Infant" - observation of his son Francis

7. The birth of differential psychology- genetic factors determine differences between people

8. Defended an objective approach to the study of mental phenomena (observation, experiment)

Conclusions:

1. Thanks to the spread of evolutionary teachings, the view of the human psyche has changed. Psychology began to be based not on the ideas of mechanics, buton the objective data of evolutionary biology.
2. What contributed to the formulation and attempts to solvesuch problems as: adaptation to the environment, individual differences, heredity, continuity between the psyche of animals and human consciousness.
3. Introduction into psychology of objective, genetic and statistical methods
4. The emergence of the category of behavior

Achievements of physiology nervous system and sense organs. The emergence of psychophysics (G. Fechner), psychometry (F. Donders), psychophysiology (G. Helmholtz).

Fechner psychophysics.Fechner is the creator of the law establishing the connection between the brain and the body.This law represents the quantitative relationship between mental sensation and physical stimulus.

Experiments: The ringing of a bell in addition to one bell already ringing has a different effect than its addition to 10 bells ->the amount of sensation depends on the amount of stimulus.This law has overcome the barrier between mental and physical. But: the stimulus is easy to measure (the weight of the load, the brightness level, etc.) but how to measure the subjective sensation?

Fechner proposed two ways to measure sensation:

1) absolute thresholdthat point in the intensity of the stimulus, below which no sensations are recorded, and above which the subject experiences sensations.

2) differential thresholdThe smallest difference between two stimuli that causes a change in sensation.

THAT. sensation (thought, mental quality) and stimulus (body, material quality) are quantifiable.

Weber Fechner's Law: If the strength of the stimulus increases exponentially, then the intensity of the sensation increases exponentially.So, a chandelier with 8 lights seems to us as much brighter than a 4-light chandelier as a 4-light chandelier is brighter than a 2-light chandelier. That is, the number of light bulbs should increase several times, so that it seems to us that the increase in brightness is constant.

Fechner also conducted experiments: on the lifting of various loads, the sensation of lighting, tactile sensations. The result of his research wasdirection occurrence: Psychophysics scientific study of the relationship between mental and physical processes

Conclusions: Thanks to Fechner's research, the possibility of a quantitative assessment of mental processes was discovered, which was the foundation for the creation of experimental psychology, using convenient and accurate measurement methods.

Donders psychometry.Francis Donders, Sigmund Exner (coined the term reaction time)

Mental reactions were measured using a chronoscope - auditory, visual, skin.

Used a laboratory experiment: studied reactions of varying complexity, if you compare them -By subtracting the time of the simpler reaction from the time of the more complex one,measure the duration of the processes of perception and thinking. Conclusion: mental processes can be quantitatively analyzed in the same way as the processes studied by the natural sciences.

Chronometric Method: Chronoscopeordinary clock, distinguishing thousandths of a second and driven by electric current.The use of the chronometric method in psychology.

Eg. a sound is given and the subject must press the lever. F. Galton compiled a list of words and opened it in turn, as soon as the subject responded to the stimulus, the stopwatch turned off (you can measure the reaction time)

Helmholtz psychophysiology

For psychologists highest value have the work of Helmholtz on the study of the speed of passage of a nerve impulse, and the psychophysiology of vision and hearing.

1. Nerve impulse speed was measured for the first time on frogs.He also conducted similar experiments on people, but the data even for one person turned out to be different and he abandoned this idea.His research paved the way for experiments to determine the quantitative characteristics of psychophysiological processes..

2. Physiology of vision- studies of the external and internal muscles of the eye, itexpanded the theory of color vision(red, green, purple primary colors).He experimentally studied such phenomena as the perception of contrast, the eye, illusions, binocular vision and came to the conclusion that all these functionsare not innate, but are the result of experience and practice.

3. Physiology of hearing -experiments on the study of the tonal composition of vowel sounds.His experiments gave the impression of a talking machine.« The miracle" consisted in the fact that with the simultaneous action of many individual resonator tubes, with the supply of air, the value of a certain vowel sound was achieved.Helmholtz comes to the conclusion about the resonant nature of the sound and auditory apparatus in humans.

Conclusions:

Helmholtz's experiments to study human sensations contributed to the strengthening of the experimental approach in the study of psychological problems.

Development of own thesaurus and explanatory principles of psychology.

MAIN CONCLUSIONS:

1. The emergence of evolutionary theory, the development of physiology and psychophysiology, contributed to the formation of psychology as an independent science, which has its own categorical apparatus, subject, and most importantly objective methods for studying the psyche, psychology becomes an experimental science
2. In the 19th century, within the framework of psychology, many various directions: zoopsychology, comparative psychology, differential psychology and others. Psychology intersectoral science.

The second half of the 19th century is the period of separation of psychology from philosophy and natural science, its transition to an independent path of development, the formation of psychology as an experimental science. The transformation of psychology into an independent experimental discipline found its expression in the development of theoretical programs, the opening of the first experimental laboratories in various countries of the world, the formation of national psychological societies, the foundation of special journals, the organization of world psychological congresses, in the conduct of psychological research itself and the creation of special instruments and experimental equipment.

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Separation of psychological knowledge into an independent science (mid-19th century to the present)

The formation of psychology as an independent science

By the 70s of the 19th century, the development of science led to the need to combine disparate knowledge about the psyche into a separate discipline, different from others.

W. M. Wundt (1832-1920) began to study psychology, being a physiologist (at one time he was an assistant to G. Helmholtz). In the work "Fundamentals of Physiological Psychology" (1873-1874), he combined the accumulated knowledge into a new discipline, giving it an ancient name - psychology, however, trying to part with its past, he attached the epithet physiological to it.

The great merit of Wundt was the foundation in Leipzig in 1879 of the world's first experimental psychological laboratory, which became the main "nursery" of the first generation

experimental psychologists. Historians of psychology have calculated that 136 Germans, 14 Americans, 10 Englishmen, 6 Poles, 3 Russians, 2 Frenchmen passed through Wundt's school. It studied the patterns of sensations, reaction time to various stimuli, association mechanisms, attention. "Direct experience" was recognized as a unique subject of psychology, the main method was introspection: the subject's observation of the processes in his mind. Introspection was understood in. m. Wundt as a special procedure requiring special

al long training. The subjects were required to be distracted from everything external in order to find the initial elements of internal experience, to get to the primary “tissue” of consciousness, which seemed to consist of sensory (sensory) “threads”. When the question arose of complex mental phenomena, where thinking and will came into play, the shortcomings of Wundt's program were immediately revealed. Nevertheless, the work done by the Wundt school laid the foundations of experimental psychology.

The American psychologist W. James (1842-1910) made psychology one of the most popular sciences in America. He was the first professor of psychology at Harvard University, president of the American Psychological Association (1894-1895). In his scientific research, James dealt with personality problems, studying the activity of the brain, development cognitive processes and emotions. One of the main tasks he considered the study of consciousness. James did much to make psychology an independent science, independent of medicine and philosophy. He initiated the functionalist approach (1881). Functionalists believed that the role of consciousness is to give the individual the opportunity to adapt to situations that arise throughout life, with the help of developed, changed, new forms of behavior (learning process). In their research, they also used the method of introspection.

W. James

The American psychologist E. Titchener (1867-1927), after graduating from Oxford University, worked in Leipzig with Wundt. In 1892 he returned to the United States, where at Cornell University he created the largest scientific school in this country. In his four-volume work Experimental Psychology, Titchener outlined the main achievements of science from Wundtian positions (Titchener is sometimes called the American Wundt). This direction was called structuralism, since the main task in it was considered to be the study of the structure of consciousness, regardless of how this structure works.

Functionalist and structuralist approaches to the study of consciousness have not received their further development in modern psychology. This was influenced by a number of reasons, including the use of a subjective research method and speculative ideas about the static structure of consciousness.

This period was marked by achievements important for the development of psychological knowledge - the first experiments in the field of psychology. The German psychologist G. Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) in his book "On Memory" outlined the results of experiments carried out on himself and deduced the mathematical laws by which the learned material is stored and reproduced.

The development of statistical methods in relation to psychology is associated with the work of Darwin's cousin F. Galton (1822-1911). He studied individual differences, believing that they are genetically predetermined. In his book Hereditary Genius (1869), he argued, referring to many facts, that outstanding abilities are inherited. In his laboratory in London, anyone could, for a small fee, measure their physical and psychic abilities between which, as he believed, there are correlations. About 9000 people passed through this anthropological laboratory. He expected to cover the entire population of England in order to determine the level of the country's mental resources. He designated his tests with the word “test”, which has forever entered the psychological lexicon.

The first solution to the problem of diagnostics belonged to the French psychologist A. Wien (1857-191 1). He began with experimental studies of thinking (the subjects were his daughters). However, soon, on the instructions of the government, A. Wiene began to look for psychological means by which it would be possible to separate children who were capable of learning, but lazy, from those who suffer from birth defects. Experiments on the study of attention, memory, thinking were carried out on many subjects of various ages. A. Wiene turned the experimental tasks into tests by establishing a scale, each of the divisions of which contained tasks that could be performed by normal children of a certain age. This scale has gained popularity in many countries. In Germany, V. Stern introduced the concept of "intelligence quotient" (10). The technique of measuring intelligence made it possible, on the basis of psychological data, to solve issues of training, selection of personnel, assessment of achievements, professional suitability, and others.

Thus, it can be stated that in the second half of the 19th century, psychology emerged as an independent science: the specifics of the subject were determined, research methods were developed, experimental laboratories were opened, new branches of psychology arose - differential, child, zoopsychology and others.

In the second half of the XIX century. objective conditions are being created for separating psychology into an independent science. In foreign and domestic science, the idea of ​​the need for an independent development of psychology, separate from philosophy and natural science, within which psychological thought was born, is increasingly encountered: this is required by the specificity of mental phenomena.

The idea that one of the conditions for psychology to achieve independence is its separation from philosophy was expressed by G.I. Chelpanov in a report at the 1st All-Russian Congress on Psychoneurology "On the Premises of Modern Empirical Psychology" (1923).

The separation of psychology into an independent science occurred in the 60s. 19th century It was marked by the appearance of the first programs ( W. Wundt, I.M. Sechenov), the creation of special research institutions: psychological laboratories and institutes, departments in higher educational institutions who began the training of scientific personnel of psychologists, the release of special psychological journals, the formation of psychological societies and associations, and the holding of international congresses on psychology.

By S.L. Rubinstein, The implementation of the experiment played a decisive role in the development of psychology as an independent science. The experiment was borrowed by psychology from natural science, primarily from the physiology of the sense organs and the nervous system. The intensive development of these and other areas of natural science, advances in the field of explaining the phenomena of life, the emergence of psychophysics and psychometry were the most important prerequisites for the transformation of psychology into an independent science and determined its development along the lines of the natural sciences.

The orientation towards natural science was reflected, first of all, in the understanding of scientific character in psychology. As wrote Hugo Münsterberg (1863 - 1916), great psychologist and methodologist of psychology, founder of psychotechnics, supporter applied psychology, human thinking, feeling, desire, etc. can be considered from different points of view, but only one of them is of importance to scientific psychology. He considered unscientific psychology, which tries to understand mental life as a connection of meanings, goals, tries to penetrate the meaning of mental phenomena. Scientific psychology considers mental phenomena: perceptions, memories, feelings, etc. as objects in front of which consciousness stands in the role of a reflective passive spectator. Like all objects, they allow only the question of what their constituent parts are, how they are related to each other, what are their causes and the actions caused by them. Scientific psychology is built as a natural science. Her tasks are to reduce the more complex to the simpler, her method is a laboratory-type experiment with mandatory measurement procedures, and the experimenter should not interfere in the experiment; the explanation of mental phenomena is reduced to the identification of their physiological mechanisms. Practice acts as the application of psychology to explain the phenomena of culture and find means and ways to perform such practical tasks as training, education, restoration of impaired mental functions, etc., denoted by the general term "psychotechnics".

Page 17 of 30

Highlighting psychologyinto independent science

Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) - famous German scientist, organizer of science. A key moment in the development of psychology is associated with his name, since it was he who organized the first Laboratory for the Experimental Study of Consciousness in Leipzig in 1879 and the first The educational center, where one could get a psychological education - the Institute of Experimental Psychology.

Wundt was the second son in a pastor's family. Many members of the Wundt family became famous in various fields Sciences. Initially, he studied medicine at two German universities (Heidelberg and Tübengen), then studied physiology at the University of Berlin for a year, and later, having already received his doctorate, worked as a laboratory assistant with Helmholtz, famous for his work on the physiology of the propagation of excitation in a nerve fiber and studies of space perception (Schultz D., Schultz S., 1998).

At an organized institute, Wundt lectured on logic, psychology, the psychology of language, cosmology, mathematical logic, the psychology of peoples, the physiology of the nervous system and the brain, and the basics of ethics and law (Zhdan A.N., 1997). His lectures were attended by up to 600 people. Leipzig became a place of pilgrimage for those who were interested in the problems of psychology. The Americans Stanley Hall (the founder of pedology), Hugo Müpsterberg (the founder of industrial psychology) were among those who studied, trained or simply visited the Wundt Institute and Laboratory; German psychiatrist, one of the founders of modern psychiatry, Emil Kraepelin; the only true student of Wundt was the Englishman Edward Titchener (the founder of the school of structural psychology); Oswald Külpe, founder of the Würzburg School for the Experimental Study of Thinking, and his collaborator Karl Marbe; Russian scientists - psychiatrist, neurologist Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev, psychiatrist Vladimir Fedorovich Chizh, psychologist Nikolai Nikolaevich Lange (creator of one of the first experimental psychology laboratories in Odessa) and many others.

Wundt formulated his ideas regarding the applicability of the experiment in psychology in the work "Essays on the Theory of Perception" (1862), and in the work "Lectures on the Soul of Man and Animals" (1863) he substantiated his conviction about the impossibility of applying the experimental method to the analysis of the products of the human spirit - language , myths, beliefs. By the mid 60s. 19th century Wundt formed an idea about the subject matter of psychology as a science, about its methods and immediate tasks of development.

The subject of psychology. Criticizing the notion that psychology is the science of the soul or inner experience, Wundt defined psychology as the science of direct experience of consciousness nia, where subject and object are inextricably linked. The direct experience of consciousness consists of two series of factors - the objective content of the experience, which reflects the objectively existing external world, and the subjective experience of the subject perceiving the world. In this regard, psychology deals with two types of mental elements. Elements of objective content are sensations (heat, light, tone, hardness, taste, smell, etc.). The elements of the subjective series can be described with the help of elementary emotions experienced by the subject who perceives the world (in the range of pleasure-unpleasure), and the level of activation of the subject (excitement-sedation, tension-relaxation). According to Wundt, the diversity of the subjective world is higher than the diversity of the objective world.

Thus, the elementary components of the immediate current experience of the subject are three phenomena - sensations, feelings tivation. The task of psychology is to exhaustively describe the components of the direct experience of the subject's consciousness. At the same time, Wundt believed that the elements of consciousness (“brain atoms”) are not static and their connections are not mechanical, and consciousness has the function apperception, or "creative synthesis" and integration with respect to elemental phenomena.

In the later period of his scientific activity (the 80s, known as the philosophical decade), Wundt came to understand that in addition to the immediate experience of the consciousness of an individual subject, there is also a huge layer cultural and historical experience of all mankind, which psychology cannot ignore: it is language, myths, beliefs, ie. what Wundt called "the highest products of the human spirit". This line of development of psychology is presented in the 10-volume edition "Psychology of Peoples" (1900-1920). Methods of psychology. An important consequence follows from such an understanding of the subject of psychology: in order to measure the elements of the direct experience of consciousness, it is necessary to apply to an objective series of data experiment, to the second, subjective row - introspection method, for this phenomenology is open only to the experiencing subject and to no one else.

For mental phenomena associated with the cultural and historical past of mankind, as Wundt believed, only descriptive me tod research.

Topics of laboratory research At schoolWundt. In Wundt's laboratory, the following characteristics of sensations (and perceptions) were experimentally studied: the volume of the visual field and the effects of binocular and monocular vision, color perception, sequential images, visual adaptation and light contrast. In the 90s. work began on the study of other modalities - auditory sensations (Kruger), skin and tactile sensations (Blix, Frey), olfactory and taste sensations. A division into contact and distant sense organs appeared, and hypotheses arose about phylogenetically older (contact) and "younger" (distant) sense organs. In addition, attempts were made to study the duration of elementary mental acts - sensations by measuring the reaction time. Among the scientific topics of Wundt's laboratory was a topic related to the study of not simple reaction time to physical stimuli, but reactions to speech signals, experiments that were also carried out by other researchers (F: Galton). This type of experiment is called the association experiment. Wundt classified a variety of speech responses into the following classes: a) verbal associations that arise as a result of connections established in culture (table-chair, water-river); b) external associations based on the name of objects that fall into the field of view of the subject at the time of the experiment; c) internal associations based on logical relationships of meanings (genus-species, species-species, etc.).

If we talk about the Wundt school itself, then it ceased to exist, since “he was able to attract many, but retained a few” (Yaroshevsky M. G., 1976, p. 309). Many of his students (with the exception of E. Titchener) abandoned the teacher's ideas and stood at the head of individual psychological schools and trends of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Psychology began to develop according to the laws of small groups: a group (school) was formed with an ideological leader, rigid boundaries of membership, opposed to representatives of other schools, with its own printed organ and organizational structure (Yaroshevsky M. G., 1976). This period of the development of psychology in Russian literature was called the crisis, but looking ahead and analyzing the development of psychology in the 20th century, we can say that this crisis has become chronic. If by the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. in psychology, there were 5 major theoretical areas (behaviorism, psychoanalysis, structural psychology, functional psychology, Gestalt psychology), then by the turn of the XX-XXI centuries. N. Smith (2003) describes 16 psychological systems that include schools as smaller units.

Separation of psychology into an independent science and its development until the period of open crisis (60s of the XIX - 10s of the XX centuries)

The first programs of psychology as an independent science. W. Wundt (1832 - 1920) and the formation of experimental psychology. Subject, methods and tasks of psychology according to Wundt. program dualism. Wundt school. The program for the construction of scientific psychology by I.M. Sechenov (1829 - 1905). Reflex concept of mental. Definition of the subject of psychology. Methods of psychology. Sechenov's research in the field of perception, memory, thinking, will. The role of Sechenov in the development of domestic and world psychological science.

Other psychological programs in foreign science. Structuralism of E. Titchener (1867 - 1927) as a development of Wundt's ideas in American psychology. Method of analytical introspection. The psychology of the act F. Brentano (1838 - 1917) and its development in philosophy and psychology. Psychology of functions K. Stumpf (1848 - 1986). Austrian psychological school People: A. Meinong (1853 - 1920), S. Vitasek (1870 - 1915), H.-Von - Ehrenfels (1859 - 1932). The development of Brentano's ideas in England (J. Stout, 1860 - 1944; J. Ward (1843 - 1925); in Germany (T. Lipps, 1851 - 1914), in Switzerland (E. Claparede).

Psychology of W. James (1842 - 1910). Understanding the psyche as a factor in the adaptation of the body to the environment. Characteristics of consciousness. Theory of mental automatism. The doctrine of emotions, will, personality. Significance of James psychology for the emergence of functionalism. Pragmatism as a methodological basis of functionalism. Key points functionally; psychology. Its influence on the development of applied fields and the emergence of behaviorism.

The most important directions in the development of psychology in Russia. Psychology at the universities: Moscow (M.M. Troitsky, N.Ya. Grot, L.M. Lopatin), St. Petersburg (M.I. Vladislavlev, A.I. Vvedensky), Kiev (S.S. Gogotsky) and its role in the creation of scientific schools.

Natural science direction. The struggle for objective research methods at different stages of V.M. Bekhterev (1857 - 1927). Comparative psychology V.A. Wagner (1849 - 1934). The teachings of A. A. Ukhtomsky (1875 - 1942) about the dominant. The concept of a functional organ, chronotope. Physiology higher nervous activity I.P. Pavlova (1849 - 1936) and its importance for the development of psychology.

The role of G.K. Chelpanov (1862 - 1936) in the organization scientific research and creating a system psychological education in Russia. The Institute of Psychology founded by Chelpanov (1912, officially opened in 1914) is the largest center for theoretical and experimental research. Questions of theory and method in the works of Chelpanov. Chelpanov School.

Philosophical psychology (S.L. Frank, N.O. Lossky, G.G. Shpet). Significance for the psychology of the philosophy of Vl. Solovieva, N.A. Berdyaev.

Development of experimental psychology and its applied areas. Opening of experimental psychology laboratories in Europe and America. The first psychological laboratories in Russia (V.M. Bekhterev - Kazan, St. Petersburg, S.S. Korsakov, A.A. Tokarsky - Moscow, P.K. Kovalevsky - Kharkov, G.F. Chizh - Dorpat, etc.) . Extension of the experiment to the study of higher mental processes. Classical works in memory of G. Ebbinghaus (1885), G.E. Muller (1911, 1913, 1917). Studies in the psychology of hearing by K. Stumpf (1883, 1890). Experimental studies of perception and attention N.N. Lange (1888, 1893). Studies of thinking in the Würzburg school (1901 - 1911). Studying the process of skill formation (W. Bryan, N. Harter, W. Book, J. McKean Cattell). Experimental studies of animal psychology (E. Thorndike, V. Small, etc.), their significance for approval objective methods in psychology.

The emergence of the psychology of individual differences. Research F. Galton (1882-1911) in the field of ability and measurement of intelligence. Method of Tests (1890, Cattell). Foundation of the London School of Psychology by C. Spearman (1863-1945). Spearman's two-factor theory of intelligence (1904). Further development of the factorial theory of intelligence (L. Thurstone, 1931, J. Gilford, 1967). "Individual psychology of A. Binet and V. Henri" (1895). Differential psychology of V. Stern (1900). Development of individual psychology in Russia. Characterology of A.F. Lazursky (1874 - 1917). Chelpanov on the state and significance of the psychology of individual differences.

Application of psychology to pedagogy. General guides to psychology as applied to pedagogical issues (W. James, G. Münsterberg, J. Dewey). Experimental studies of the learning process. E. Thorndike (1874-1949). Laws of learning. Research by A. Binet (1875 - 1911) in the field of intelligence testing. The Metric Scale of Intelligence (1905, 1908). Its improvement by L. Theremin (1916).

G. St. Hall (1863 - 1924). Theory of recapitulation, methods of empirical research in the field mental development. Ideas in Pedology (1893). Hall's organizational activity. Experimental pedagogy of E. Meyman (1862 - 1915).

The development of psychological and pedagogical thought in Russia. P.F. Lesgaft and his School Types (1890). Foundation of A.P. Nechaev (1870 - 1948) of the laboratory of experimental pedagogical psychology (1901). Experimental studies of Nechaev in child and educational psychology. Congresses on educational psychology in Russia (1906, 1909, 1910, 1913, 1916). "Psychological profiles" G.I. Rossolimo (1910). The emergence of special psychology and pedagogy of difficult children (defectology) - M.A. Sikorsky, G.Ya. Troshin, A.S. Griboyedov, V.P. Kashchenko.

Pedological movement in Russia

Application of psychology to medicine. Pioneers of the application of methods of experimental psychology in a psychiatric clinic (E. Kraepelin, R. Sommer, E. Bleyer.). Association experiment method. Autistic Thinking (Bleiler, 1919). The concept of the constitution in psychiatry (E. Kretschmer, 1921; W. Sheldon, 1927) and the problem of the relationship between soul and body in normal and pathological conditions. The study of reactive states (K. Jaspers, 1913, E. Kretschmer) and psychopathy (K. Schneider, P.B. Gannushkin, 1933). Blurring the boundaries between norm and pathology in psychology. Transition to the problems of personality psychology.

Clinical research in the field of hysteria and neurosis (A. Liebo, 1823 - 1904; M. Charcot, 1825 - 1893; I. Bernheim, 1837 - 1919). Role psychological factors in explaining hysteria and hypnosis. Psychopathology and the founding of scientific psychology in France. Psychology T. Ribot (1813 - 1916). Psychology as a science of behavior P. Janet (1859-1947). The discovery of the unconscious in the writings of Janet. Dispute about priority over the discovery of the unconscious between Janet and Z. Freud.

Application of psychology to the field of industrial production. The first attempts to rationalize working conditions in order to increase labor productivity (F. Taylor, late 19th century). The beginning of the scientific development of the psychological problems of labor. G. Münsterberg (1863 - 1916) and the emergence of psychotechnics. Tasks, problems and methods of psychotechnics. Formation of labor psychology and psychotechnics in Russia.

Problems of correlation between theory and practice in psychology in connection with growth applied research. Methodological significance of psychotechnics (Vygotsky).

Key concepts: structuralism, introspection, functionalism, Würzburg school, French sociological school, descriptive psychology, structural psychology, existential psychology, "contextual theory of meaning", intention, qualities of H. Ehrenfels, gestalt weaving, empathy, stream of consciousness, dynamic psychology, "stream of consciousness" theory, sociologism, collective representations, psychotechnics, conditioned reflex, unconditioned reflex, objective psychology, associative psychology, modality, voluntarism, apperception.